The Dot-based System of Reading and Writing Is Known as

Tactile writing arrangement for blind and visually dumb people

This article is about the writing system used past people who are blind or have depression vision. For the person who created Braille, come across Louis Braille. For other uses, see Braille (disambiguation).

Braille
Script blazon	Alphabet (nonlinear)
Creator	Louis Braille
Fourth dimension period	1824 to nowadays
Management	left-to-correct
Languages	Several
Related scripts
Parent systems	Nighttime writing Early on braille Braille
Kid systems	French Braille English language Braille Bharati Braille Chinese Braille Japanese Braille Korean Braille etc.
Sis systems	New York Point
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Brai, 570 , ​Braille
Unicode
Unicode allonym	Braille
Unicode range	U+2800–U+28FF

Braille ( BRAYL ; Braille: ⠃⠗⠇; French: [bʁaj]) is a tactile writing system used by people who are visually impaired, including people who are blind, deafblind or who take depression vision. It can be read either on embossed paper or by using refreshable braille displays that connect to computers and smartphone devices. Braille can be written using a slate and stylus, a braille author, an electronic braille notetaker or with the use of a computer connected to a braille embosser.

Braille is named later its creator, Louis Braille, a Frenchman who lost his sight every bit a result of a babyhood accident. In 1824, at the age of fifteen, he developed the braille code based on the French alphabet as an improvement on night writing. He published his system, which subsequently included musical notation, in 1829.^[one] The 2nd revision, published in 1837, was the first binary form of writing developed in the modernistic era.

Braille characters are formed using a combination of six raised dots arranged in a 3 × 2 matrix, called the braille cell. The number and organization of these dots distinguishes 1 character from another. Since the various braille alphabets originated as transcription codes for printed writing, the mappings (sets of character designations) vary from language to language, and fifty-fifty within one; in English Braille there are three levels of braille: Uncontracted braille - a alphabetic character-by-letter transcription used for basic literacy; contracted braille – an addition of abbreviations and contractions used as a infinite-saving machinery; and Grade 3 – various non-standardized personal stenography that is less normally used.

In improver to braille text (letters, punctuation, contractions), it is also possible to create embossed illustrations and graphs, with the lines either solid or made of series of dots, arrows, bullets that are larger than braille dots, etc. A full braille jail cell includes six raised dots arranged in 2 columns, each cavalcade having three dots.^[2] The dot positions are identified by numbers from 1 to six.^[2] There are 64 possible combinations, including no dots at all for a word space.^[three] Dot configurations can exist used to represent a letter, digit, punctuation mark, or even a word.^[two]

Early on braille education is crucial to literacy, educational activity and employment among the blind. Despite the development of new technologies including screen reader software that reads information aloud, braille provides blind people with access to spelling, punctuation and other aspects of written language less accessible through audio lone. While some have suggested that sound-based technologies volition decrease the demand for braille, technological advancements such as braille displays take continued to make braille more attainable and available. Braille users highlight that braille remains every bit essential as print is to the sighted.^[4]

History [edit]

The Braille lawmaking where the discussion

( premier , French for "start") can exist read.

Braille was based on a tactile military code called night writing, adult past Charles Barbier in response to Napoleon's demand for a means for soldiers to communicate silently at night and without a lite source.^[five] In Barbier'due south organization, sets of 12 embossed dots encoded 36 different sounds. It proved to exist too difficult for soldiers to recognize by touch and was rejected by the armed services. In 1821 Barbier visited the Royal Institute for the Blind in Paris, where he met Louis Braille. Braille identified three major defects of the code: beginning, the symbols represented phonetic sounds and not messages of the alphabet – thus the code was unable to render the orthography of the words. Second, the 12-dot symbols could non easily fit beneath the pad of the reading finger. This required the reading finger to motion in gild to perceive the whole symbol which slowed the reading process. Third, the code did not include symbols for numerals or punctuation. Braille'southward solution was to use vi-dot cells and to assign a specific pattern to each alphabetic character. Braille besides adult symbols for representing numerals and punctuation.^[6] At first, Braille was a ane-to-1 transliteration of the French alphabet, but before long diverse abbreviations (contractions) and fifty-fifty logograms were developed, creating a system much more like shorthand.^[seven]

Today, there are braille codes for over 133 languages.^[8]

In English, some variations in the braille codes have traditionally existed amid English-speaking countries. In 1991, work to standardize the braille codes used in the English-speaking world began. Unified English Braille (UEB) has been adopted in all 7 member countries of the International Council on English Braille (ICEB) as well every bit Nigeria.^[9]

For blind readers, Braille is an independent writing system, rather than a lawmaking of printed orthography.^[10]

Derivation [edit]

Braille is derived from the Latin alphabet, albeit indirectly. In Braille'south original system, the dot patterns were assigned to messages according to their position inside the alphabetic order of the French alphabet of the time, with absolute letters and w sorted at the stop.^[xi]

Dissimilar impress which consists of mostly arbitrary symbols, the braille alphabet follows a logical sequence. The first x letters of the alphabet, a–j, use the upper iv dot positions: ⠁ ⠃ ⠉ ⠙ ⠑ ⠋ ⠛ ⠓ ⠊ ⠚ (black dots in the table beneath). These stand up for the ten digits ane–9 and 0 in an alphabetic numeral organization similar to Greek numerals (as well all derivations of information technology, including Hebrew numerals, Cyrillic numerals, Abjad numerals, too Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy).

Though the dots are assigned in no obvious order, the cells with the fewest dots are assigned to the first iii letters (and everyman digits), abc = 123 (⠁ ⠃ ⠉), and to the three vowels in this part of the alphabet, aei (⠁ ⠑ ⠊), whereas the even digits, 4, 6, 8, 0 (⠙ ⠋ ⠓ ⠚), are corners/right angles.

The side by side 10 letters, k–t, are identical to a–j, respectively, autonomously from the improver of a dot at position 3 (ruddy dots in the bottom left corner of the cell in the table below): ⠅ ⠇ ⠍ ⠝ ⠕ ⠏ ⠟ ⠗ ⠎ ⠞:

Derivation (colored dots) of the 26 braille letters of the Basic Latin alphabet
from the 10 numeric digits (blackness dots)

a/1	b/2	c/three	d/4	e/5	f/half-dozen	g/7	h/8	i/ix	j/0
k	l	m	n	o	p	q	r	s	t
u	five	x	y	z					w

The next x messages (the next "decade") are the same again, just with dots as well at both position 3 and position 6 (green dots in the bottom row of the jail cell in the table above). Hither west was initially left out every bit not beingness a role of the official French alphabet at the fourth dimension of Braille'southward life; the French braille society is u v 10 y z ç é à è ù (⠥ ⠧ ⠭ ⠽ ⠵ ⠯ ⠿ ⠷ ⠮ ⠾).^{[note 1]}

The next x letters, ending in w, are the aforementioned over again, except that for this series position half-dozen (majestic dot in the bottom right corner of the cell in the table above) is used without a dot at position 3. In French braille these are the letters â ê î ô û ë ï ü ö w (⠡ ⠣ ⠩ ⠹ ⠱ ⠫ ⠻ ⠳ ⠪ ⠺). Due west had been tacked onto the finish of 39 letters of the French alphabet to accommodate English.

The a–j series shifted down by 1 dot space (⠂ ⠆ ⠒ ⠲ ⠢ ⠖ ⠶ ⠦ ⠔ ⠴) is used for punctuation. Letters a ⠁ and c ⠉, which but utilise dots in the top row, were shifted two places for the apostrophe and hyphen: ⠄ ⠤. (These are also the decade diacritics, at left in the table beneath, of the second and third decade.)

In addition, there are 10 patterns that are based on the outset two letters (⠁ ⠃) with their dots shifted to the right; these were assigned to non-French letters (ì ä ò ⠌ ⠜ ⠬), or serve not-letter functions: ⠈ (superscript; in English the emphasis marking), ⠘ (currency prefix), ⠨ (uppercase, in English the decimal point), ⠼ (number sign), ⠸ (emphasis marker), ⠐ (symbol prefix).

The 64 modern braille cells ^{[note 2]}

decade			numeric sequence											shift right
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th	shift downward

The commencement four decades are similar in respect that in those decades the decade dots are applied to the numeric sequence as a logical "inclusive OR" functioning whereas the fifth decade applies a "shift down" operation to the numeric sequence.

Originally there had been ix decades. The 5th through ninth used dashes every bit well as dots, only proved to be impractical and were soon abased. These could exist replaced with what nosotros now know as the number sign (⠼), though that only caught on for the digits (erstwhile 5th decade → modern 1st decade). The dash occupying the meridian row of the original sixth decade was just dropped, producing the modernistic fifth decade. (Come across 1829 braille.)

Assignment [edit]

Historically, at that place take been three principles in assigning the values of a linear script (print) to Braille: Using Louis Braille's original French letter values; reassigning the braille letters according to the sort order of the print alphabet being transcribed; and reassigning the messages to improve the efficiency of writing in braille.

Under international consensus, most braille alphabets follow the French sorting order for the 26 letters of the basic Latin alphabet, and there take been attempts at unifying the messages beyond these 26 (meet international braille), though differences remain, for instance in German Braille. This unification avoids the chaos of each nation reordering the braille lawmaking to match the sorting guild of its impress alphabet, as happened in Algerian Braille, where braille codes were numerically reassigned to match the order of the Arabic alphabet and comport piddling relation to the values used in other countries (compare modern Arabic Braille, which uses the French sorting order), and as happened in an early American version of English Braille, where the letters w, x, y, z were reassigned to match English language alphabetical order. A convention sometimes seen for letters across the basic 26 is to exploit the physical symmetry of braille patterns iconically, for example, by assigning a reversed north to ñ or an inverted due south to sh. (See Hungarian Braille and Bharati Braille, which do this to some extent.)

A tertiary principle was to assign braille codes according to frequency, with the simplest patterns (quickest ones to write with a stylus) assigned to the most frequent letters of the alphabet. Such frequency-based alphabets were used in Federal republic of germany and the United states in the 19th century (see American Braille), but with the invention of the braille typewriter their advantage disappeared, and none are attested in modern utilise – they had the disadvantage that the resulting small number of dots in a text interfered with following the alignment of the letters, and consequently made texts more than difficult to read than Braille'due south more arbitrary letter-assignment. Finally, in that location are braille scripts which don't order the codes numerically at all, such equally Japanese Braille and Korean Braille, which are based on more abstract principles of syllable composition.

Texts are sometimes written in a script of eight dots per cell rather than half dozen, enabling them to encode a greater number of symbols. (See Gardner–Salinas braille codes.) Luxembourgian Braille has adopted eight-dot cells for full general apply; for example, it adds a dot below each letter to derive its upper-case letter variant.

Form [edit]

Silver wedding bands with names Henri(que) and Tita written in braille

Braille was the first writing system with binary encoding.^[7] The organisation equally devised by Braille consists of 2 parts:^[ten]

1. Character encoding that mapped characters of the French alphabet to tuples of half dozen $.25 (the dots),
2. The concrete representation of those 6-fleck characters with raised dots in a braille cell.

Within an individual cell, the dot positions are arranged in two columns of three positions. A raised dot can appear in whatever of the 6 positions, producing sixty-4 (2^half-dozen) possible patterns, including one in which at that place are no raised dots. For reference purposes, a blueprint is ordinarily described by list the positions where dots are raised, the positions being universally numbered, from peak to lesser, as 1 to 3 on the left and 4 to 6 on the right. For case, dot pattern 1-three-4 describes a cell with three dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and at the top of the right column: that is, the letter ⠍ grand. The lines of horizontal Braille text are separated by a space, much like visible printed text, so that the dots of one line can be differentiated from the braille text above and below. Different assignments of braille codes (or code pages) are used to map the character sets of unlike printed scripts to the six-bit cells. Braille assignments take besides been created for mathematical and musical notation. Notwithstanding, because the vi-dot braille cell allows simply 64 (two⁶) patterns, including space, the characters of a braille script commonly accept multiple values, depending on their context. That is, character mapping between print and braille is not one-to-i. For example, the character ⠙ corresponds in print to both the letter d and the digit 4.

In add-on to simple encoding, many braille alphabets utilize contractions to reduce the size of braille texts and to increase reading speed. (Run across Contracted braille)

Writing braille [edit]

Lucy Sergent, 26-year-old daughter of a Kentucky coal miner, writing with a slate and stylus in 1946. Bullheaded from nascence, she attended the Kentucky School for the Blind for 11 years.

Braille may be produced by hand using a slate and stylus in which each dot is created from the dorsum of the page, writing in mirror image, or it may be produced on a braille typewriter or Perkins Brailler, or an electronic Brailler or braille notetaker. The unlike tools that exist for writing braille let the braille user to select the method that is best for a given chore. For example, the slate and stylus is a portable writing tool, much like the pen and paper for the sighted. Errors can be erased using a braille eraser or can exist overwritten with all six dots (⠿). Interpoint refers to braille printing that is offset, and so that the newspaper can be embossed on both sides, with the dots on one side appearing between the divots that form the dots on the other. Using a estimator or other electronic device, Braille may be produced with a braille embosser (printer) or a refreshable braille brandish (screen).

Eight-dot braille [edit]

Braille has been extended to an 8-dot code, specially for use with braille embossers and refreshable braille displays. In 8-dot braille the additional dots are added at the bottom of the prison cell, giving a matrix iv dots loftier by 2 dots wide. The boosted dots are given the numbers seven (for the lower-left dot) and eight (for the lower-right dot). Viii-dot braille has the advantages that the example of an individual letter is directly coded in the cell containing the letter of the alphabet and that all the printable ASCII characters tin can exist represented in a single cell. All 256 (ii⁸) possible combinations of 8 dots are encoded by the Unicode standard. Braille with half dozen dots is often stored equally Braille ASCII.

Letters [edit]

The first 25 braille letters, upwards through the first half of the third decade, transcribe a–z (skipping w). In English Braille, the rest of that decade is rounded out with the ligatures and, for, of, the, and with. Omitting dot 3 from these forms the 4th decade, the ligatures ch, gh, sh, thursday, wh, ed, er, ou, ow and the letter of the alphabet w.

(Meet English language Braille.)

Formatting [edit]

Various formatting marks affect the values of the letters that follow them. They have no straight equivalent in print. The about of import in English Braille are:

That is, ⠠ ⠁ is read as capital 'A', and ⠼ ⠁ as the digit 'ane'.

Punctuation [edit]

Basic punctuation marks in English Braille include:

Comma	Semicolon	Apostrophe	Colon	Hyphen	Decimal point
Total end (Period)	Assertion indicate	Open quote, question mark	Shut quote	Bracket (Parentheses)	Slash (Fraction)

⠦ is both the question mark and the opening quotation mark. Its reading depends on whether it occurs before a word or after.

⠶ is used for both opening and closing parentheses. Its placement relative to spaces and other characters determines its interpretation.

Punctuation varies from language to linguistic communication. For example, French Braille uses ⠢ for its question mark and swaps the quotation marks and parentheses (to ⠶ and ⠦ ⠴); it uses the period (⠲) for the decimal point, as in print, and the decimal point (⠨) to mark capitalization.

Contractions [edit]

Braille contractions are words and affixes that are shortened so that they take up fewer cells. In English Braille, for example, the word afternoon is written with just 3 letters, ⠁ ⠋ ⠝ ⟨afn⟩, much like stenoscript. There are too several abridgement marks that create what are effectively logograms.^[10] The most common of these is dot 5, which combines with the first letter of the alphabet of words. With the letter ⠍ g, the resulting word is ⠐ ⠍ mother. At that place are also ligatures ("contracted" letters), which are single letters in braille but represent to more than than 1 letter in impress. The letter of the alphabet ⠯ and, for example, is used to write words with the sequence a-n-d in them, such as ⠓ ⠯ hand.

Folio dimensions [edit]

Most braille embossers support betwixt 34 and 40 cells per line, and 25 lines per page.

A manually operated Perkins braille typewriter supports a maximum of 42 cells per line (its margins are adjustable), and typical paper allows 25 lines per page.

A large interlining Stainsby has 36 cells per line and eighteen lines per page.

An A4-sized Marburg braille frame, which allows interpoint braille (dots on both sides of the page, offset so they do non interfere with each other), has xxx cells per line and 27 lines per page.

Braille writing machine [edit]

A Braille writing machine is a typewriter with half-dozen keys that allows the user to write braille on a regular hard copy page.

The first Braille typewriter to gain full general acceptance was invented by Frank Oasis Hall (Superintendent of the Illinois Schoolhouse for the Blind), and was presented to the public in 1892.^{[12] [thirteen]}

The Stainsby Brailler, adult by Henry Stainsby in 1903, is a mechanical writer with a sliding carriage that moves over an aluminium plate as it embosses Braille characters. An improved version was introduced around 1933.^{[xiv] [15]}

In 1951 David Abraham, a woodworking instructor at the Perkins School for the Blind produced a more advanced Braille typewriter, the Perkins Brailler.^[12]

Braille printers or embosser were produced in 1950s. In 1960 Robert Isle of mann, a teacher in MIT, wrote DOTSYS, a software that allowed automatic braille translation, and another group created an embossing device called "M.I.T. Braillemboss.". The Mitre Corporation team of Robert Gildea, Jonathan Millen, Reid Gerhart and Joseph Sullivan (now president of Duxbury Systems) developed DOTSYS III, the start braille translator written in a portable programming language. DOTSYS 3 was developed for the Atlanta Public Schools every bit a public domain plan.^{[xvi] [17]}

In 1991 Ernest Bate developed the Mountbatten Brailler, an electronic machine used to blazon braille on braille paper, giving information technology a number of additional features such every bit give-and-take processing, audio feedback and embossing. This version was improved in 2008 with a quiet author that had an erase key.^{[ commendation needed ]}

In 2011 David S. Morgan produced the first SMART Brailler machine, with added text to oral communication function and immune digital capture of information entered.^[eighteen]

Braille reading [edit]

Braille is traditionally read in hardcopy course, such as with paper books written in braille, documents produced in newspaper braille (such as restaurant menus), and braille labels or public signage. It can also exist read on a refreshable braille display either every bit a stand-solitary electronic device or continued to a computer or smartphone. Refreshable braille displays catechumen what is visually shown on a computer or smartphone screen into braille through a serial of pins that rise and autumn to form braille symbols. Currently more than 1% of all printed books have been translated into hardcopy braille.^[19]

The fastest braille readers apply a light affect and read braille with two easily, although reading braille with ane hand is also possible.^[20] Although the finger tin read simply one braille character at a fourth dimension, the encephalon chunks braille at a higher level, processing words a digraph, root or suffix at a fourth dimension. The processing largely takes identify in the visual cortex.^[21]

Literacy [edit]

Georgia University for the Bullheaded has been providing braille didactics and braille literacy since 1876.

Children who are blind miss out on fundamental parts of early and advanced instruction if non provided with the necessary tools, such as access to educational materials in braille. Children who are bullheaded or visually impaired can begin learning foundational braille skills from a very young historic period to become fluent braille readers as they go older. Sighted children are naturally exposed to written language on signs, on Television receiver and in the books they see. Blind children require the same early exposure to literacy, through access to braille rich environments and opportunities to explore the world around them. Impress-braille books, for example, nowadays text in both print and braille and can be read by sighted parents to blind children (and vice versa), allowing bullheaded children to develop an early on honey for reading even before formal reading educational activity begins.^[22]

Adults who experience vision loss subsequently in life or who didn't accept the opportunity to learn it when they were younger can besides larn braille. In most cases, adults who learn braille were already literate in impress before vision loss and then didactics focuses more on developing the tactile and motor skills needed to read braille.^[23]

While different countries publish statistics on how many readers in a given organisation asking braille, these numbers merely provide a partial picture of braille literacy statistics. For example, this data does not always survey the unabridged population of braille readers or include readers who are no longer in the school organization (adults) or readers who request electronic braille materials. Regardless of the precise per centum of braille readers, there is consensus that braille should be provided to all those who do good from it.^[24]

U.South. braille literacy statistics [edit]

In 1960, 50% of legally blind, school-age children were able to read braille in the U.S.^{[25] [26]} Co-ordinate to the 2015 Annual Study from the American Printing House for the Bullheaded, in that location were 61,739 legally blind students registered in the U.Due south. Of these, 8.6% (five,333) were registered every bit braille readers, 31% (nineteen,109) as visual readers, 9.iv% (five,795) equally auditory readers, 17% (10,470) equally pre-readers, and 34% (21,032) as not-readers.^[27]

In that location are numerous factors that influence access to braille literacy, including schoolhouse budget constraints, engineering advancements such as screen-reader software, and dissimilar philosophical views over how blind children should be educated.^{[28] [29]}

A cardinal turning point for braille literacy was the passage of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, an human action of Congress that moved thousands of children from specialized schools for the blind into mainstream public schools.^[26] Because only a pocket-size per centum of public schools could beget to train and hire braille-qualified teachers, braille literacy has declined since the law took effect.^{[ clarification needed ] [26]} Braille literacy rates take improved slightly since the nib was passed,^{[ clarification needed ]} in part because of pressure from consumers and advancement groups that has led 27 states to laissez passer legislation mandating that children who are legally bullheaded be given the opportunity to learn braille.^[28]

In 1998 in that location were 57,425 legally bullheaded students registered in the United States, but only 10% (v,461) of them used braille as their principal reading medium.^{[xxx] [31]}

Early Braille education is crucial to literacy for a bullheaded or low-vision child. A written report conducted in the state of Washington found that people who learned braille at an early on age did only as well, if not better than their sighted peers in several areas, including vocabulary and comprehension. In the preliminary adult study, while evaluating the correlation between developed literacy skills and employment, it was found that 44% of the participants who had learned to read in braille were unemployed, compared to the 77% unemployment rate of those who had learned to read using print.^[32] Currently, amidst the estimated 85,000 blind adults in the Us, 90% of those who are braille-literate are employed. Among adults who do not know braille, only 33% are employed.^[26] Statistically, history has proven that braille reading proficiency provides an essential skill set that allows blind or low-vision children to compete with their sighted peers in a school environs and later in life equally they enter the workforce.^[28]

Uk [edit]

In Britain, out of the reported two million blind and low vision population, it is estimated that but around 18,000–20,000 people use braille.^[33]

Regardless of the specific per centum, proponents point out the importance of increasing admission to braille for all those who can do good from it.[ane]

Braille transcription [edit]

Braille on a box of tablets. The raised Braille reads 'plavix'.

Braille book and the same book in inkprint

Although it is possible to transcribe impress by simply substituting the equivalent braille character for its printed equivalent, in English such a character-by-graphic symbol transcription (known every bit uncontracted braille) is typically used by beginners or those who but engage in curt reading tasks (such as reading household labels).

Braille characters are much larger than their printed equivalents, and the standard eleven" by xi.five" (28 cm × thirty cm) page has room for merely 25 lines of 43 characters. To reduce space and increase reading speed, most braille alphabets and orthographies utilise ligatures, abbreviations, and contractions. Virtually all English Braille books in hardcopy (paper) format are transcribed in contracted braille: The Library of Congress's Instruction Transmission for Braille Transcribing ^[34] runs to over 300 pages and braille transcribers must pass certification tests.

Uncontracted braille was previously known as Grade 1 braille and contracted braille was previously known equally Class 2 braille. Uncontracted braille is a direct transliteration of print words (one-to-i correspondence); hence, the word "about" would contain all the same letters in uncontracted braille as it does in inkprint. Contracted braille includes curt-forms to relieve space; hence, for instance, the messages "ab" when continuing alone represent the word "well-nigh" in English contracted braille. In English, some braille users just learn uncontracted braille, particularly if braille is existence used for shorter reading tasks such as reading household labels. However, those who plan to use braille for educational and employment purposes and longer reading texts often get on to contracted braille.

The arrangement of contractions in English language Braille begins with a set of 23 words which are contracted to single characters. Thus the word simply is contracted to the unmarried letter b, can to c, do to d, and so on. Even this simple rule creates bug requiring special cases; for example, d is, specifically, an abbreviation of the verb do; the noun do representing the note of the musical scale is a different word, and must be spelled out.

Portions of words may be contracted, and many rules govern this process. For example, the graphic symbol with dots two-3-5 (the alphabetic character "f" lowered in the Braille cell) stands for "ff" when used in the middle of a give-and-take. At the beginning of a word, this aforementioned character stands for the word "to"; the graphic symbol is written in braille with no infinite post-obit it. (This contraction was removed in the Unified English Braille Code.) At the end of a word, the same graphic symbol represents an exclamation point.

Some contractions are more like than their print equivalents. For example, the wrinkle ⟨lr⟩, meaning 'letter', differs from ⟨ll⟩, meaning 'little', merely by one dot in the second alphabetic character: ⠇ ⠇ picayune, ⠇ ⠗ letter. This causes greater defoliation between the braille spellings of these words and tin can hinder the learning procedure of contracted braille.^[35]

The contraction rules take into account the linguistic structure of the discussion; thus, contractions are generally non to be used when their apply would modify the usual braille form of a base discussion to which a prefix or suffix has been added. Some portions of the transcription rules are not fully codified and rely on the judgment of the transcriber. Thus, when the contraction rules permit the same discussion in more than than one way, preference is given to "the contraction that more well-nigh approximates correct pronunciation."

'Grade 3 Braille' is a diversity of non-standardized systems that include many additional shorthand-like contractions.^[36] They are not used for publication, but by individuals for their personal convenience.

Braille translation software [edit]

When people produce braille, this is called braille transcription. When computer software produces braille, this is called braille translation. Braille translation software exists to handle most of the common languages of the globe, and many technical areas, such as mathematics (mathematical annotation), for example WIMATS, music (musical note), and tactile graphics.

Braille reading techniques [edit]

Since Braille is ane of the few writing systems where tactile perception is used, equally opposed to visual perception, a braille reader must develop new skills. One skill of import for Braille readers is the ability to create polish and even pressures when running one's fingers forth the words. There are many dissimilar styles and techniques used for the understanding and development of braille, fifty-fifty though a study past B. F. Holland^[37] suggests that there is no specific technique that is superior to whatever other.

Another report by Lowenfield & Abel^[38] shows that braille can be read "the fastest and best... past students who read using the index fingers of both hands". Another of import reading skill emphasized in this study is to stop reading the end of a line with the right paw and to detect the beginning of the adjacent line with the left hand simultaneously.

International uniformity [edit]

When Braille was commencement adapted to languages other than French, many schemes were adopted, including mapping the native alphabet to the alphabetical order of French – e.g. in English W, which was not in the French alphabet at the time, is mapped to braille X, X to Y, Y to Z, and Z to the offset French-accented letter – or completely rearranging the alphabet such that common letters are represented past the simplest braille patterns. Consequently, common intelligibility was greatly hindered by this situation. In 1878, the International Congress on Work for the Blind, held in Paris, proposed an international braille standard, where braille codes for dissimilar languages and scripts would be based, not on the lodge of a particular alphabet, but on phonetic correspondence and transliteration to Latin.^[39]

This unified braille has been practical to the languages of India and Africa, Arabic, Vietnamese, Hebrew, Russian, and Armenian, as well as near all Latin-script languages. In Greek, for example, γ (g) is written as Latin grand, despite the fact that it has the alphabetic position of c; Hebrew ב (b), the second letter of the alphabet and cognate with the Latin alphabetic character b, is sometimes pronounced /b/ and sometimes /five/, and is written b or 5 accordingly; Russian ц (ts) is written every bit c, which is the usual letter for /ts/ in those Slavic languages that utilise the Latin alphabet; and Arabic ف (f) is written every bit f, despite being historically p and occurring in that part of the Arabic alphabet (between historic o and q).

Other braille conventions [edit]

Other systems for assigning values to braille patterns are likewise followed beside the simple mapping of the alphabetical order onto the original French order. Some braille alphabets outset with unified braille, and and so diverge significantly based on the phonology of the target languages, while others diverge even farther.

In the various Chinese systems, traditional braille values are used for initial consonants and the simple vowels. In both Mandarin and Cantonese Braille, however, characters have different readings depending on whether they are placed in syllable-initial (onset) or syllable-last (rime) position. For instance, the cell for Latin k, ⠅, represents Cantonese g (g in Yale and other modern romanizations) when initial, simply aak when final, while Latin j, ⠚, represents Cantonese initial j but final oei.

Novel systems of braille mapping include Korean, which adopts separate syllable-initial and syllable-concluding forms for its consonants, explicitly grouping braille cells into syllabic groups in the same way as hangul. Japanese, meanwhile, combines independent vowel dot patterns and modifier consonant dot patterns into a single braille cell – an abugida representation of each Japanese mora.

Uses [edit]

A bottle of Chapoutier wine, with braille on the label

An embossed map of a German railroad train station, with braille text

Braille is used for both curt and long reading tasks. Examples of short reading tasks include braille labels for identifying household items (or cards in a wallet), reading elevator buttons, accessing phone numbers, recipes, grocery lists and other personal notes. Examples of longer reading tasks include using braille to access educational materials, novels and magazines. People with access to a refreshable braille brandish can too use braille for reading email and ebooks, browsing the net and accessing other electronic documents. Information technology is also possible to adapt or purchase playing cards and lath games in braille.^[40]

In India there are instances where the parliament acts have been published in braille, such every bit The Right to Information Act.^[41] Sylheti Braille is used in Northeast Bharat.^[42]

In Canada, passenger safety information in braille and tactile seat row markers are required aboard planes, trains, large ferries, and interprovincial busses pursuant to the Canadian Transportation Agency's regulations.^[43]

In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 requires various building signage to be in braille.^[44]

In the United Kingdom, it is required that medicines have the proper noun of the medicine in Braille on the labeling.^[45]

Currency [edit]

The electric current series of Canadian banknotes has a tactile feature consisting of raised dots that indicate the denomination, allowing bills to be easily identified past blind or low vision people. It does non employ standard braille numbers to place the value. Instead, the number of full braille cells, which can exist simply counted by both braille readers and non-braille readers alike, is an indicator of the value of the bill.

Mexican banking concern notes, Australian bank notes, Indian rupee notes, Israeli new shekel notes^[46] and Russian ruble notes also have special raised symbols to brand them identifiable by persons who are blind or low vision.^[47]

Euro coins were designed in cooperation with organisations representing blind people, and equally a result they contain many features allowing them to be distinguished by affect lone. In improver, their visual advent is designed to make them piece of cake to tell autonomously for persons who cannot read the inscriptions on the coins. "A good design for the blind and partially sighted is a adept design for everybody" was the principle behind the cooperation of the European Central Bank and the European Blind Union during the pattern phase of the kickoff serial Euro banknotes in the 1990s.^[48] As a result, the pattern of the start euro banknotes included several characteristics which aid both the bullheaded and partially sighted to confidently employ the notes.^[48]

Australia introduced the tactile feature onto their 5-dollar banknote in 2016^[49]

In the United Kingdom, the front of the £10 polymer note (the side with raised print), has two clusters of raised dots in the superlative left hand corner, and the £20 note has three. This tactile feature helps blind and partially sighted people place the value of the note.^[50]

Unicode [edit]

The Braille set was added to the Unicode Standard in version 3.0 (1999).

Most braille embossers and refreshable braille displays practise not use the Unicode code points, merely instead reuse the 8-flake code points that are assigned to standard ASCII for braille ASCII. (Thus, for unproblematic material, the same bitstream may exist interpreted equally as visual letter of the alphabet forms for sighted readers or their exact semantic equivalent in tactile patterns for bullheaded readers. However some codes have quite different tactile versus visual interpretations and most are not even divers in Braille ASCII.)

Some embossers have proprietary control codes for eight-dot braille or for full graphics mode, where dots may exist placed anywhere on the folio without leaving any space between braille cells so that continuous lines can exist drawn in diagrams, but these are rarely used and are not standard.

The Unicode standard encodes half dozen-dot and viii-dot braille glyphs according to their binary advent, rather than following their assigned numeric order. Dot 1 corresponds to the to the lowest degree significant bit of the low byte of the Unicode scalar value, and dot 8 to the high bit of that byte.

The Unicode block for braille is U+2800 ... U+28FF. The mapping of patterns to characters etc. is language dependent: even for English language for case, see American Braille and English Braille.

Braille Patterns [1] Official Unicode Consortium lawmaking nautical chart (PDF)

0

one

2

3

4

five

half-dozen

7

8

9

A

B

C

D

Due east

F

U+280x

⠀

⠁

⠂

⠃

⠄

⠅

⠆

⠇

⠈

⠉

⠊

⠋

⠌

⠍

⠎

⠏

U+281x

⠐

⠑

⠒

⠓

⠔

⠕

⠖

⠗

⠘

⠙

⠚

⠛

⠜

⠝

⠞

⠟

U+282x

⠠

⠡

⠢

⠣

⠤

⠥

⠦

⠧

⠨

⠩

⠪

⠫

⠬

⠭

⠮

⠯

U+283x

⠰

⠱

⠲

⠳

⠴

⠵

⠶

⠷

⠸

⠹

⠺

⠻

⠼

⠽

⠾

⠿

(terminate of 6-dot cell patterns)

U+284x

⡀

⡁

⡂

⡃

⡄

⡅

⡆

⡇

⡈

⡉

⡊

⡋

⡌

⡍

⡎

⡏

U+285x

⡐

⡑

⡒

⡓

⡔

⡕

⡖

⡗

⡘

⡙

⡚

⡛

⡜

⡝

⡞

⡟

U+286x

⡠

⡡

⡢

⡣

⡤

⡥

⡦

⡧

⡨

⡩

⡪

⡫

⡬

⡭

⡮

⡯

U+287x

⡰

⡱

⡲

⡳

⡴

⡵

⡶

⡷

⡸

⡹

⡺

⡻

⡼

⡽

⡾

⡿

U+288x

⢀

⢁

⢂

⢃

⢄

⢅

⢆

⢇

⢈

⢉

⢊

⢋

⢌

⢍

⢎

⢏

U+289x

⢐

⢑

⢒

⢓

⢔

⢕

⢖

⢗

⢘

⢙

⢚

⢛

⢜

⢝

⢞

⢟

U+28Ax

⢠

⢡

⢢

⢣

⢤

⢥

⢦

⢧

⢨

⢩

⢪

⢫

⢬

⢭

⢮

⢯

U+28Bx

⢰

⢱

⢲

⢳

⢴

⢵

⢶

⢷

⢸

⢹

⢺

⢻

⢼

⢽

⢾

⢿

U+28Cx

⣀

⣁

⣂

⣃

⣄

⣅

⣆

⣇

⣈

⣉

⣊

⣋

⣌

⣍

⣎

⣏

U+28Dx

⣐

⣑

⣒

⣓

⣔

⣕

⣖

⣗

⣘

⣙

⣚

⣛

⣜

⣝

⣞

⣟

U+28Ex

⣠

⣡

⣢

⣣

⣤

⣥

⣦

⣧

⣨

⣩

⣪

⣫

⣬

⣭

⣮

⣯

U+28Fx

⣰

⣱

⣲

⣳

⣴

⣵

⣶

⣷

⣸

⣹

⣺

⣻

⣼

⣽

⣾

⣿

Notes 1. ^ As of Unicode version 14.0

Observation [edit]

Every year on 4 January, Earth Braille Day is observed internationally to commemorate the birth of Louis Braille and to recognize his efforts. Although the event is not considered a public holiday, it has been recognized by the Un every bit an official day of celebration since 2019.^[51]

Braille devices [edit]

There is a variety of contemporary electronic devices that serve the needs of blind people that operate in Braille, such as refreshable braille displays and Braille e-book that employ different technologies for transmitting graphic data of different types (pictures, maps, graphs, texts, etc.)

Run across also [edit]

Notes [edit]

1. ^ The values of the Latin messages after z differ from language to language; these are Braille's assignments for rendering French.
2. ^ The characters take been bundled by decade, with decade diacritics listed at left, and supplementary characters included on the right co-ordinate to their diacritic. Run into 1829 braille, where the 12 characters listed in the first line are used for shorthand and are establish in this social club for the 12 notes of plainsong notation, and French Braille, where the 'final' form of Braille's alphabet is laid out in the same way. However, modernistic tables often organize the supplementary characters differently: Those with a dot three are listed as a 6th group of 6 characters, and those with dots but on the correct side are listed as a 7th grouping of 7, without annihilation in common with the other characters in the columns they are listed under.

References [edit]

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External links [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Braille.

• L'association Valentin Haüy (in French)
  • Acting for the autonomy of blind and partially sighted persons (Corporate brochure) (Microsoft Give-and-take file, in English)
• Alternating Text Product Center of the California Community Colleges.
• Braille Function 1 Text To Speech communication For The Visually Impaired YouTube
• Braille information and advice - Sense United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland
• Braille at Omniglot

driscollthabees.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braille

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