After the Heat Death of the Universe Will Anything Ever Happen Again

Futurity scenario if the expansion of the universe will continue forever or not

Virtually observations suggest that the expansion of the universe will proceed forever. The prevailing theory is that the universe will absurd as it expands, eventually becoming too common cold to sustain life. For this reason, this future scenario once popularly called "Heat Death" is now known as the "Big Chill" or "Big Freeze".^{[one] [2]}

If dark free energy—represented by the cosmological constant, a constant energy density filling space homogeneously,^[3] or scalar fields, such every bit quintessence or moduli, dynamic quantities whose free energy density tin can vary in fourth dimension and space—accelerates the expansion of the universe, and then the space between clusters of galaxies will grow at an increasing charge per unit. Redshift will stretch ancient, incoming photons (even gamma rays) to undetectably long wavelengths and low energies.^[iv] Stars are expected to course normally for 10¹² to ten¹⁴ (one–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for star formation volition be exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and stop to smooth, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker.^{[v] [vi]} According to theories that predict proton disuse, the stellar remnants left behind will disappear, leaving behind only black holes, which themselves eventually disappear every bit they emit Hawking radiation.^[7] Ultimately, if the universe reaches thermodynamic equilibrium, a state in which the temperature approaches a uniform value, no further work will exist possible, resulting in a concluding heat death of the universe.^[eight]

Cosmology [edit]

Infinite expansion does not decide the overall spatial curvature of the universe. It tin exist open (with negative spatial curvature), flat, or airtight (positive spatial curvature), although if information technology is airtight, sufficient dark energy must exist nowadays to counteract the gravitational forces or else the universe will end in a Big Crunch.^[ix]

Observations of the catholic background radiations by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and the Planck mission suggest that the universe is spatially flat and has a significant amount of dark energy.^{[10] [eleven]} In this case, the universe should continue to expand at an accelerating rate. The dispatch of the universe's expansion has too been confirmed by observations of afar supernovae.^[9] If, as in the concordance model of physical cosmology (Lambda-cold dark matter or ΛCDM), dark free energy is in the form of a cosmological constant, the expansion volition eventually go exponential, with the size of the universe doubling at a abiding rate.

If the theory of aggrandizement is truthful, the universe went through an episode dominated by a different form of dark energy in the first moments of the Big Bang; but aggrandizement concluded, indicating an equation of state much more complicated than those assumed and then far for nowadays-day nighttime energy. It is possible that the dark energy equation of state could change again resulting in an event that would have consequences which are extremely difficult to parametrize or predict.^{[ citation needed ]}

Futurity history [edit]

In the 1970s, the future of an expanding universe was studied by the astrophysicist Jamal Islam^[12] and the physicist Freeman Dyson.^[13] And then, in their 1999 book The Five Ages of the Universe, the astrophysicists Fred Adams and Gregory Laughlin divided the past and future history of an expanding universe into five eras. The first, the Primordial Era, is the time in the past just subsequently the Big Bang when stars had not nonetheless formed. The 2nd, the Stelliferous Era, includes the present mean solar day and all of the stars and galaxies now seen. Information technology is the time during which stars course from collapsing clouds of gas. In the subsequent Degenerate Era, the stars volition have burnt out, leaving all stellar-mass objects every bit stellar remnants—white dwarfs, neutron stars, and blackness holes. In the Black Hole Era, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and other smaller astronomical objects have been destroyed by proton decay, leaving only black holes. Finally, in the Night Era, fifty-fifty black holes have disappeared, leaving only a dilute gas of photons and leptons.^[14]

This future history and the timeline below assume the continued expansion of the universe. If space in the universe begins to contract, subsequent events in the timeline may non occur because the Big Crunch, the plummet of the universe into a hot, dense country like to that after the Large Bang, volition supervene.^{[fourteen] [15]}

Timeline [edit]

The Stelliferous Era [edit]

From the nowadays to about 10 ¹⁴ (100 trillion) years after the Large Bang

The observable universe is currently one.38×10 ^ten (13.8 billion) years old.^[sixteen] This time is in the Stelliferous Era. About 155 million years later on the Big Bang, the first star formed. Since then, stars take formed past the collapse of small, dense core regions in large, common cold molecular clouds of hydrogen gas. At first, this produces a protostar, which is hot and brilliant considering of energy generated by gravitational contraction. Subsequently the protostar contracts for a while, its core could become hot enough to fuse hydrogen, if information technology exceeds critical mass, a process called 'stellar ignition', and its lifetime every bit a star volition properly begin.^[xiv]

Stars of very low mass will somewhen exhaust all their fusible hydrogen and then become helium white dwarfs.^[17] Stars of low to medium mass, such as our own sun, will miscarry some of their mass as a planetary nebula and eventually become white dwarfs; more massive stars volition explode in a cadre-collapse supernova, leaving behind neutron stars or black holes.^[18] In whatever case, although some of the star'southward matter may be returned to the interstellar medium, a degenerate remnant will be left backside whose mass is not returned to the interstellar medium. Therefore, the supply of gas available for star formation is steadily being exhausted.

Galaxy Galaxy and the Andromeda Galaxy merge into one [edit]

four–8 billion years from now (17.8 – 21.8 billion years later the Big Bang)

The Andromeda Galaxy is currently approximately 2.5 meg light years away from our galaxy, the Milky way Galaxy, and they are moving towards each other at approximately 300 kilometers (186 miles) per 2nd. Approximately five billion years from now, or 19 billion years after the Big Blindside, the Galaxy and the Andromeda Milky way will collide with ane some other and merge into i big galaxy based on current bear witness (meet, Andromeda–Galaxy collision. Up until 2012, in that location was no way to confirm whether the possible collision was going to happen or not.^[19] In 2012, researchers came to the decision that the collision is definite after using the Hubble Space Telescope between 2002 and 2010 to track the motion of Andromeda.^[xx] This results in the formation of Milkdromeda (besides known as Milkomeda).

22 billion years in the futurity is the primeval possible stop of the Universe in the Large Rip scenario, assuming a model of night energy with westward = −1.five.^{[21] [22]}

False vacuum disuse may occur in twenty to 30 billion years if the Higgs field is metastable.^{[23] [24] [25]}

Coalescence of Local Grouping and galaxies exterior the Local Supercluster are no longer accessible [edit]

10 ¹¹ (100 billion) to 10 ¹² (one trillion) years

The galaxies in the Local Group, the cluster of galaxies which includes the Galaxy and the Andromeda Galaxy, are gravitationally bound to each other. It is expected that betwixt 10 ¹¹ (100 billion) and 10 ¹² (1 trillion) years from at present, their orbits volition decay and the entire Local Group will merge into one big milky way.^[five]

Bold that nighttime energy continues to brand the universe expand at an accelerating charge per unit, in nigh 150 billion years all galaxies exterior the Local Supercluster will pass behind the cosmological horizon. It will then be impossible for events in the Local Supercluster to touch other galaxies. Similarly, information technology will be impossible for events after 150 billion years, equally seen past observers in distant galaxies, to affect events in the Local Supercluster.^[4] Nevertheless, an observer in the Local Supercluster will continue to run across distant galaxies, but events they observe will become exponentially more redshifted every bit the milky way approaches the horizon until fourth dimension in the distant galaxy seems to stop. The observer in the Local Supercluster never observes events after 150 billion years in their local time, and eventually all light and background radiations lying outside the Local Supercluster will appear to blink out equally lite becomes so redshifted that its wavelength has go longer than the concrete diameter of the horizon.

Technically, it will take an infinitely long time for all causal interaction between the Local Supercluster and this low-cal to end. However, due to the redshifting explained to a higher place, the light volition not necessarily be observed for an space amount of time, and afterwards 150 billion years, no new causal interaction will be observed.

Therefore, afterward 150 billion years, intergalactic transportation and communication across the Local Supercluster becomes causally impossible.

Luminosities of galaxies begin to diminish [edit]

8×10 ¹¹ (800 billion) years

eight×10 ^xi (800 billion) years from now, the luminosities of the different galaxies, approximately similar until then to the electric current ones thanks to the increasing luminosity of the remaining stars every bit they age, will start to decrease, as the less massive red dwarf stars brainstorm to die as white dwarfs.^[26]

Galaxies exterior the Local Supercluster are no longer detectable [edit]

2×ten ¹² (ii trillion) years

2×10 ¹² (ii trillion) years from at present, all galaxies outside the Local Supercluster will be redshifted to such an extent that even gamma rays they emit will accept wavelengths longer than the size of the observable universe of the time. Therefore, these galaxies volition no longer be detectable in any way.^[4]

Degenerate Era [edit]

From 10 ¹⁴ (100 trillion) to x ⁴⁰ (ten duodecillion) years

By 10 ^fourteen (100 trillion) years from now, star germination will terminate,^[v] leaving all stellar objects in the grade of degenerate remnants. If protons do not decay, stellar-mass objects will disappear more slowly, making this era last longer.

Star formation ceases [edit]

10^{12–fourteen} (1–100 trillion) years

By 10 ¹⁴ (100 trillion) years from at present, star formation will end. This period, known as the "Degenerate Era", will last until the degenerate remnants finally disuse.^[27] The least massive stars take the longest to exhaust their hydrogen fuel (run into stellar evolution). Thus, the longest living stars in the universe are low-mass red dwarfs, with a mass of about 0.08 solar masses (M _☉), which accept a lifetime of over 10 ¹³ (10 trillion) years.^[28] Coincidentally, this is comparable to the length of fourth dimension over which star formation takes place.^[5] In one case star formation ends and the least massive red dwarfs exhaust their fuel, nuclear fusion will cease. The depression-mass red dwarfs volition cool and become black dwarfs.^[17] The just objects remaining with more than planetary mass will be brown dwarfs, with mass less than 0.08Yard _☉, and degenerate remnants; white dwarfs, produced past stars with initial masses betwixt about 0.08 and 8 solar masses; and neutron stars and black holes, produced past stars with initial masses over eightM _☉. Well-nigh of the mass of this collection, approximately 90%, will exist in the form of white dwarfs.^[6] In the absence of whatsoever energy source, all of these formerly luminous bodies will absurd and go faint.

The universe will get extremely nighttime after the concluding stars burn out. Even so, there tin withal be occasional calorie-free in the universe. One of the ways the universe can be illuminated is if 2 carbon–oxygen white dwarfs with a combined mass of more than the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 solar masses happen to merge. The resulting object will then undergo runaway thermonuclear fusion, producing a Blazon Ia supernova and dispelling the darkness of the Degenerate Era for a few weeks. Neutron stars could besides collide, forming even brighter supernovae and dispelling up to 6 solar masses of degenerate gas into the interstellar medium. The resulting matter from these supernovae could potentially create new stars.^{[29] [thirty]} If the combined mass is not above the Chandrasekhar limit but is larger than the minimum mass to fuse carbon (about 0.9M _☉), a carbon star could be produced, with a lifetime of around 10 ⁶ (1 million) years.^[fourteen] As well, if ii helium white dwarfs with a combined mass of at to the lowest degree 0.3K _☉ collide, a helium star may be produced, with a lifetime of a few hundred one thousand thousand years.^[14] Finally brown dwarfs can form new stars colliding with each other to form a red dwarf star, that can survive for ten ^thirteen (ten trillion) years,^{[28] [29]} or accreting gas at very slow rates from the remaining interstellar medium until they have enough mass to commencement hydrogen burning as reddish dwarfs too. This process, at least on white dwarfs, could induce Type Ia supernovae too.^[31]

Planets fall or are flung from orbits by a close run across with another star [edit]

10 ¹⁵ (ane quadrillion) years

Over time, the orbits of planets volition decay due to gravitational radiation, or planets volition be ejected from their local systems by gravitational perturbations caused by encounters with another stellar remnant.^[32]

Stellar remnants escape galaxies or fall into black holes [edit]

10 ^nineteen to 10 ²⁰ (ten to 100 quintillion) years

Over time, objects in a galaxy substitution kinetic energy in a process called dynamical relaxation, making their velocity distribution arroyo the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution.^[33] Dynamical relaxation can proceed either by close encounters of two stars or past less fierce simply more frequent distant encounters.^[34] In the case of a shut come across, ii brown dwarfs or stellar remnants will pass shut to each other. When this happens, the trajectories of the objects involved in the close encounter change slightly, in such a way that their kinetic energies are more nearly equal than earlier. After a big number of encounters, and then, lighter objects tend to proceeds speed while the heavier objects lose it.^[14]

Because of dynamical relaxation, some objects will gain just enough energy to attain galactic escape velocity and depart the galaxy, leaving behind a smaller, denser galaxy. Since encounters are more frequent in this denser galaxy, the process so accelerates. The end outcome is that virtually objects (90% to 99%) are ejected from the galaxy, leaving a modest fraction (maybe 1% to x%) which fall into the central supermassive black pigsty.^{[5] [14]} Information technology has been suggested that the thing of the fallen remnants volition form an accretion disk around it that will create a quasar, as long as enough matter is present there.^[35]

Possible ionization of affair [edit]

>10 ²³ years from at present

In an expanding universe with decreasing density and non-zero cosmological constant, affair density would reach cypher, resulting in most matter except black dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes, and planets ionizing and dissipating at thermal equilibrium.^[36]

Future with proton decay [edit]

The following timeline assumes that protons exercise decay.

Chance: ten ³² (100 nonillion) – 10 ⁴² years (1 tredecillion)

The subsequent development of the universe depends on the possibility and rate of proton disuse. Experimental evidence shows that if the proton is unstable, information technology has a half-life of at least 10 ³⁵ years.^[37] Some of the 1000 Unified theories (GUTs) predict long-term proton instability between 10 ³² and x ³⁸ years, with the upper leap on standard (non-supersymmetry) proton disuse at i.4×10 ³⁶ years and an overall upper limit maximum for whatsoever proton decay (including supersymmetry models) at 6×ten ⁴² years.^{[38] [39]} Contempo research showing proton lifetime (if unstable) at or exceeding x ³⁶ –10 ³⁷ yr range rules out simpler GUTs and well-nigh not-supersymmetry models.

Nucleons start to disuse [edit]

Neutrons bound into nuclei are also suspected to decay with a half-life comparable to that of protons. Planets (substellar objects) would decay in a simple pour process from heavier elements to pure hydrogen while radiating energy.^[forty]

If the proton does non decay at all, and then stellar objects would even so disappear, simply more slowly. See Future without proton decay beneath.

Shorter or longer proton one-half-lives will advance or decelerate the process. This means that later on 10 ⁴⁰ years (the maximum proton half-life used by Adams & Laughlin (1997)), half of all baryonic matter will have been converted into gamma ray photons and leptons through proton decay.

All nucleons decay [edit]

10 ⁴³ (10 tredecillion) years

Given our assumed half-life of the proton, nucleons (protons and bound neutrons) will have undergone roughly ane,000 half-lives by the time the universe is x ⁴³ years old. This means that there will be roughly 0.5^1,000 (approximately 10⁻³⁰¹) equally many nucleons; equally at that place are an estimated x ⁸⁰ protons currently in the universe,^[41] none will remain at the stop of the Degenerate Age. Finer, all baryonic thing will accept been changed into photons and leptons. Some models predict the formation of stable positronium atoms with diameters greater than the observable universe's current diameter (roughly 6 · x ³⁴ metres)^[42] in 10 ⁹⁸ years, and that these will in turn decay to gamma radiation in 10 ¹⁷⁶ years.^{[five] [half-dozen]}

The supermassive black holes are all that remain of galaxies one time all protons disuse, only fifty-fifty these giants are not immortal.

If protons decay on higher-order nuclear processes [edit]

Gamble: 10 ⁷⁶ to x ²²⁰ years

If the proton does non decay according to the theories described higher up, then the Degenerate Era will last longer, and will overlap or surpass the Black Hole Era. On a time scale of 10 ⁶⁵ years solid matter is theorized to potentially rearrange its atoms and molecules via quantum tunneling, and may deport as liquid and get smooth spheres due to improvidence and gravity.^[xiii] Degenerate stellar objects tin potentially yet experience proton decay, for example via processes involving the Adler–Bell–Jackiw anomaly, virtual black holes, or higher-dimension supersymmetry possibly with a half-life of under 10 ²²⁰ years.^[5]

>10 ¹⁴⁵ years from at present

2018 estimate of Standard Model lifetime before collapse of a false vacuum; 95% confidence interval is 10⁶⁵ to 10⁷²⁵ years due in part to uncertainty almost the tiptop quark mass.^[43]

>10 ²⁰⁰ years from now

Although protons are stable in standard model physics, a quantum anomaly may exist on the electroweak level, which tin cause groups of baryons (protons and neutrons) to demolish into antileptons via the sphaleron transition.^[44] Such baryon/lepton violations have a number of iii and tin merely occur in multiples or groups of iii baryons, which tin can restrict or prohibit such events. No experimental testify of sphalerons has yet been observed at low free energy levels, though they are believed to occur regularly at high energies and temperatures.

Blackness Hole Era [edit]

ten ⁴³ (10 tredecillion) years to approximately 10 ¹⁰⁰ (1 googol) years, up to 10 ¹¹⁰ years for the largest supermassive black holes

After 10 ⁴³  years, black holes will dominate the universe. They will slowly evaporate via Hawking radiation.^[5] A black hole with a mass of around aneThou _☉ will vanish in effectually ii×ten ⁶⁴ years. As the lifetime of a blackness hole is proportional to the cube of its mass, more than massive black holes have longer to decay. A supermassive black pigsty with a mass of 10 ¹¹ (100 billion) M _☉ will evaporate in around ii×x ⁹³ years.^[45]

The largest black holes in the universe are predicted to go along to grow. Larger black holes of upwardly to 10 ¹⁴ (100 trillion) M _☉ may form during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of x ^{109 [46]} to x ¹¹⁰ years.

Hawking radiation has a thermal spectrum. During most of a black hole's lifetime, the radiation has a low temperature and is mainly in the course of massless particles such as photons and hypothetical gravitons. Every bit the black hole's mass decreases, its temperature increases, becoming comparable to the Sun's past the time the black hole mass has decreased to 10 ¹⁹ kilograms. The hole then provides a temporary source of low-cal during the general darkness of the Blackness Pigsty Era. During the concluding stages of its evaporation, a blackness pigsty will emit not but massless particles, just also heavier particles, such equally electrons, positrons, protons, and antiprotons.^[14]

Nighttime Era and Photon Historic period [edit]

From x ¹⁰⁰ years (x duotrigintillion years or 1 googol years)

Afterwards all the black holes accept evaporated (and after all the ordinary matter fabricated of protons has disintegrated, if protons are unstable), the universe will exist most empty. Photons, baryons, neutrinos, electrons, and positrons will fly from identify to place, inappreciably ever encountering each other. Gravitationally, the universe will be dominated by night matter, electrons, and positrons (not protons).^[47]

By this era, with only very lengthened matter remaining, action in the universe volition have tailed off dramatically (compared with previous eras), with very depression energy levels and very large fourth dimension scales. Electrons and positrons drifting through space will come across one another and occasionally course positronium atoms. These structures are unstable, nevertheless, and their elective particles must eventually annihilate. Nevertheless, most electrons and positrons volition remain unbound.^[48] Other low-level anything events will too take place, albeit very slowly. The universe at present reaches an extremely low-energy land.

Futurity without proton decay [edit]

This section needs expansion. Yous can help by calculation to it. (July 2020)

If the protons do non decay, stellar-mass objects will notwithstanding go black holes, but more slowly. The following timeline assumes that proton decay does non take place.

10 ¹³⁹ years from now

2018 estimate of Standard Model lifetime earlier plummet of a imitation vacuum; 95% confidence interval is ten⁵⁸ to 10²⁴¹ years due in function to uncertainty about the top quark mass.^[43]

Degenerate Era [edit]

Matter decays into atomic number 26 [edit]

10 ¹¹⁰⁰ to 10 ³²⁰⁰⁰ years from now

In 10 ¹⁵⁰⁰ years, cold fusion occurring via breakthrough tunneling should make the light nuclei in stellar-mass objects fuse into iron-56 nuclei (see isotopes of fe). Fission and blastoff particle emission should brand heavy nuclei too decay to iron, leaving stellar-mass objects as cold spheres of atomic number 26, chosen fe stars.^[13] Before this happens, in some black dwarfs the process is expected to lower their Chandrasekhar limit resulting in a supernova in 10 ¹¹⁰⁰ years. Not-degenerate silicon has been calculated to tunnel to atomic number 26 in approximately 10 ³²⁰⁰⁰ years.^[49]

Blackness Hole Era [edit]

Collapse of fe stars to blackness holes [edit]

10^{10 thirty} to 10^{x 105} years from at present

Quantum tunneling should also turn large objects into black holes, which (on these timescales) volition instantaneously evaporate into subatomic particles. Depending on the assumptions fabricated, the fourth dimension this takes to happen can be calculated as from ten^{x 26} years to 10^{10 76} years. Quantum tunneling may also brand atomic number 26 stars collapse into neutron stars in effectually 10^{ten 76} years.^[13]

Nighttime Era (without proton decay) [edit]

10^{x 105} to ten^{x 120} years from now

With blackness holes having evaporated, all baryonic matter will take now decayed into subatomic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, and quarks). The universe is now an almost pure vacuum (possibly accompanied with the presence of a faux vacuum). The expansion of the universe slowly cools information technology down to absolute zero.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Beyond [edit]

Beyond 10 ²⁵⁰⁰ years if proton disuse occurs, or x^{10 76} years without proton decay

It is possible that a Big Rip event may occur far off into the future.^{[50] [51]} This singularity would take identify at a finite calibration gene.

If the electric current vacuum land is a false vacuum, the vacuum may disuse into a lower-energy country.^[52]

Presumably, extreme low-energy states imply that localized quantum events get major macroscopic phenomena rather than negligible microscopic events because the smallest perturbations make the biggest divergence in this era, so there is no telling what may happen to space or time. It is perceived that the laws of "macro-physics" will break downward, and the laws of quantum physics volition prevail.^[8]

The universe could perchance avoid eternal heat death through random quantum tunneling and breakthrough fluctuations, given the not-zero probability of producing a new Large Bang in roughly 10^{1010 56} years.^[53]

Over an infinite corporeality of fourth dimension, there could be a spontaneous entropy decrease, by a Poincaré recurrence or through thermal fluctuations (see as well fluctuation theorem).^{[54] [55] [56]}

Massive black dwarfs could too potentially explode into supernovae after upwards to x³²⁰⁰⁰  years, assuming protons practice non decay.^[57]

The possibilities to a higher place are based on a uncomplicated form of dark energy. However, the physics of dark energy are however a very active area of enquiry, and the bodily course of nighttime energy could be much more complex. For example, during inflation night energy afflicted the universe very differently than it does today, so it is possible that night energy could trigger another inflationary period in the time to come. Until night free energy is better understood, its possible effects are extremely difficult to predict or parametrize.

Graphical timeline [edit]

See also [edit]

• Big Bounciness – Hypothetical cosmological model for the origin of the known universe
• Chronology of the universe – History and future of the universe
• Cyclic model
• Dyson's eternal intelligence – Hypothetical concept in astrophysics
• Final anthropic principle
• Graphical timeline of the Stelliferous Era
• Graphical timeline of the Big Bang – Logarithmic chronology of the event that began the Universe
• Graphical timeline from Big Bang to Heat Death. This timeline uses the double-logarithmic scale for comparison with the graphical timeline included in this article.
• Graphical timeline of the universe – Visual timeline of the universe. This timeline uses the more intuitive linear fourth dimension, for comparison with this article.
• Timeline of the Large Bang
• Timeline of the far future – Scientific projections regarding the far future
• The Last Question – A brusk story by Isaac Asimov which considers the inevitable oncome of heat death in the universe and how it may be reversed.
• Ultimate fate of the universe – Theories about the end of the universe

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